An Audio Guide to Ancient Rome (Daron Green)

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	Pub. Date	Title	Duration
	20 Sep 2020	2: The Ara Pacis	00:31:23
The Ara Pacis is a sacrificial altar commissioned by the Roman Senate on July 4, 13 BCE to honor the triumphal return of emperor Augustus from his campaigns in Hispania and Gaul. This tour assumes you are visiting the Museum of the Ara Pacis and goes into detail of the design and purpose.
	20 Sep 2020	3: The Colosseum	00:20:44
The Colosseum is the largest amphitheater built during the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and engineering in ancient Rome. This magnificent building was paid for largely by the 50,000kg of gold and silver taken during the sacking of Jerusalem. Construction was started by Vespasian in the year 70 and completed by his son, Titus, 10 years later. Vespasian's younger son, Domitian then made improvements and expansions up until the year 96.
	20 Sep 2020	4: The Capitoline Hill and Insula	00:15:36
The Capitoline Hill is the ancient heart of Rome and the setting for the foundation of the entire Roman empire. This tour explores the origins of the hill and its relationship to the Roman forum. We will also visit one of the last places to see an original ancient Roman apartments building (Insula).
	20 Sep 2020	5: The Ludus Magnus	00:14:09
The Ludus Magnus is located immediately east of the Colosseum. Translated as the ‘big training ground’ this was the largest and most prestigious gladiatorial school and barracks in ancient Rome. It is one of four centers where gladiators from across the Roman Empire would live, eat, and practice while preparing for their participation in fights. This tour explains the layout of the site and an explanation of the life and death of a gladiator. Photo by Tyler Bell, Flickr, Attribution 2.0 Generic (CC BY 2.0)
	20 Sep 2020	6: The Arch of Constantine	00:18:55
The arch was erected by the Roman Senate to commemorate emperor Constantine's victory over emperor Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge which had taken place on October 28 in the year 312. This tour gives the context for the rich details shown on the arch and explores the deeper history of why two Emperors ended-up waging war on each-other.
	20 Sep 2020	7: The Piazza Navona	00:14:58
It’s difficult to imagine it now, but the Piazza Navona we see today sits on the footprint of what was a major sporting stadium that accommodated roughly 30,000 spectators. Known it its day as the Circus Agonalis it was commissioned by Emperor Domitian and opened in the year 86. This tour, which starts at the south end of the piazza, gives the history of the site as well as context and explanation of the 16th and 17th century fountains.
	20 Sep 2020	1: The Pantheon	00:16:35
The Pantheon is the best-preserved Roman building in the world. It was originally built between 27 and 25 BCE by Augustus' right-hand man Marcus Vispanius Agrippa, supposedly as a temple dedicated to all the gods of Rome. This description and tour starts in the Piazza della Rotonda (the open square just north of the Pantheon).
	20 Sep 2020	8: The Baths of Caracalla	00:16:32
The Baths of Caracalla occupy a truly huge site to the south of the city. This particular construction was likely originally commissioned by Septimius Severus; but inaugurated in the year 216 during his son Caracalla’s reign. The opening of the baths came at a time when Caracalla had serious need of a positive public relations message given he'd recently murdered his brother, Geta, and thousands of Geta's friends in Rome. In use for roughly 300 years, the baths fell into disrepair around the time of the gothic siege of Rome in 537. Second only in size to the Baths or Diocletian which were built 100 years later, these remains are the best preserved of their kind.
	20 Sep 2020	10: The Arch of Titus	00:06:42
The Arch of Titus - This monument celebrates processional triumph given to Titus following his successful campaign in Judaea. Titus commanded the Roman army during the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70. This was the culmination of a four-year campaign in Judaea which had been triggered by the Jewish uprising in the year 66. The end of the campaign came with the sacking of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple of which little now remains but a short section of wall – known today as The Western Wall. It has been estimated that over a million people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish and nearly 100,000 were captured and enslaved. Despite the human carnage, Titus was awarded a triumph on his return to Rome in the year 71. Accompanied by both Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city and was enthusiastically greeted by the Roman populace as they cheered the lavish parade that openly flaunted the treasures and captives from the war. The Arch memorializes both the victory and, specifically, the triumphal procession when Titus was honored by all of Rome.
	20 Sep 2020	11: The Temple of Roma and Venus	00:05:20
The Temple of Roma and Venus was designed and commissioned by the Emperor Hadrian. Building started in the year 121 and this, the largest of Rome’s Temples, was inaugurated in the year 135. The building served two cults with a huge seated statue for each: one side was dedicated to the goddess Roma and the other to the goddess Venus. The goddesses sat back-to-back on thrones in the middle of the temple facing outwards on the long axis of the main building. Here Venus was also used to represent love which in Latin was written as Amor – conveniently this is Roma spelled backwards. By placing the two divinities of Venus and Rome back-to-back in a single temple Hadrian enjoyed the further symmetry of their Roman names.
	20 Sep 2020	12: The Temple of Vesta	00:04:51
The Temple of Vesta was integrated into the adjacent House and Sanctuary of the Vestal Virgins. The only remains of the temple itself are a modest mound of concrete however there is a reconstruction of part of the circular temple wall with adjacent columns that give some sense of the shape and scale of the temple building. The area served as both accommodation and a religious site for only six vestal virgins and provided a place where they could keep the sacred fire alight – a key part of their service to Vesta. Much of the underlying Sanctuary structure dates back to at least 150 BCE but it is likely that there were earlier temples and housing here as the tradition goes back to at least 400 years earlier. The area has been rebuilt and expanded multiple times over the course of the empire. At one time the large complex housed over 60 rooms, had its own well, courtyard and altar that presumably catered to the Vestal Virgins, their religious ceremonies and their large retinue of slaves and assistants. Vestals entered service between the ages of 6 and 10 and remained in position for a minimum of 30 years. They had special privileges such as enjoying special seating at major events, they were able to own property, any injury to them was punishable by death, they could free condemned prisoners simply by touching them and they had complete right of way while moving around Rome and were aided in this by having a lictor walk ahead of them clearing the way.
	20 Sep 2020	13: Temple of Divus Romulus	00:05:29
The Temple of Divus Romulus is recognizable as a tall round building on the North side of the Via Sacra. From the name you can be forgiven for thinking that this temple is dedicated to Romulus the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Instead the association comes from the theory that this is the temple dedicated to Marcus Aurelius Romulus co-consul who died at the age of 14 in the year 309. His father, the Emperor Maxentius, dedicated a Temple in this area and commissioned a series of commemorative coins which showed a domed shrine with one of the doors ajar, and an eagle on top. The temple was probably part of a larger rebuilding program undertaken by Maxentius following a disastrous fire in 306. The project was only partially complete when Maxentius died in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge while defending Rome against Emperor Constantine and his invading troops. What remains is the main entrance to a 4th Century Temple the front of which was originally flanked by two halls who’s remnants are hinted at by the surrounding brickwork and columns. The current street level is much lower than when the temple was constructed so we can see a lot of the exposed footings. Much of the façade has gone but sufficient remains to have a sense of the curving front with niches for 2 statues on each side of the main entrance door. The columns and carvings are mostly repurposed materials from older constructions.
	20 Sep 2020	14: Temple of Antoninus and Faustina	00:05:33
The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina is easily recognized by the six columns that dominate its front – these are topped by an entablature that carries the dedication to “Divo Antonino et Divae Faustinae Ex S.C.” which can be translated as “To the divine Antoninus and the divine Faustina, by Senate Decree.” In fact the temple was constructed by Emperor Antoninus Pius in honor of his wife Faustina, who had died in the year 140. Antoninus had married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder roughly thirty years earlier sometime between the 110 and 115. Faustina was a beautiful woman and Antoninus cared for her deeply. They are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage and together had four children, two sons and two daughters. Faustina died at the age of 40 and Antoninus was devastated. He asked the Senate to deify her as a goddess and authorized the construction of a temple to be built in the Roman Forum in her name. He had elaborately decorated coins with her portrait minted in her honor that were inscribed with ‘DIVA FAUSTINA’. To continue his wife’s work with the young impoverished and destitute daughters of Rome, he founded a charity called the Girls of Faustina. In the end Antoninus outlived his wife by 20 years. Upon his death, his name was added to the inscription by Emperor Marcus Aurelius who rededicated the Temple to both Antoninus and Faustina.
	20 Sep 2020	15: The New Basilica	00:06:03
Construction of the New Basilica began under the emperor Maxentius in the year 308 but was completed by emperor Constantine in 312 after his victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Indeed, the change in ruler during its building means that this is sometimes referred the Basilica of Maxentius or the Basilica of Constantine. The term Basilica in modern usage suggests a large church or cathedral but in ancient Rome it was more associated with a large civic chamber or meeting hall. It would have contained statues of gods but was not likely a place of worship. The Basilica's 3 large bays that dominate the north side of the Via Sacra faced onto a large central nave and were mirrored by another set of 3 matching bays on the South side. These bays had large windows to help light the halls and the ends each bay’s dividing support wall originally had a massive marble column 14.5 meters high and roughly 1 meter wide. All but one of these 8 columns were destroyed – the last remaining was removed by Pope Paul V in the early 1600s and placed in La Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore where it still stands.
	20 Sep 2020	16: The Temple of Divine Julius	00:06:23
Little of the Temple of Divine Julius remains however a lot is known about the events that led to its construction and what it looked like. Julius Caesar was assassinated on the 15th March in the year 44 BCE at a session of the Senate convened in a hall that was part of the Theater of Pompey. He died as a result of 23 stab wounds inflicted by a mob of dagger wielding senators that ambushed him as he entered the hall. The mob included his ally Brutus. Brutus and the rest of the senators had grown quickly unhappy with Caesar’s move to secure power and, specifically, in establishing himself as “dictator in perpetuum” or dictator in perpetuity. The temple was commissioned two years after Caesar’s death at the direction of Augustus and following Caesar’s posthumous deification. The location of his cremation was chosen very much in the spur of the moment. Mark Antony’s funeral speech had so affected the crowd that they, together with Caesar’s family and followers, took charge of the funeral service and created an impromptu funeral pyre and burned Caesar’s body here in the Forum. Shortly after the funeral the cremation site was marked by a column but, over time, this was replaced with a much more substantial temple that sat on a raised platform. Set in the front of the temple was a circular sacrificial alter – this was set in a semi-circular alcove – the concrete core of the altar can be seen and is set underneath a modern covering. The main temple building would have been accessed by steps to the right and left as you face what remains of the alter. A denarius coin minted 8 years after Caesar’s death clearly shows his temple, its alter, the pediment decoration, lettering marking the temple’s dedication as well as a statue of Julius Caesar wearing a toga and holding an augur. From this we can assume that, like other Roman temples dedicated to gods, there would have been a single large statue of Caesar standing inside the Temple’s main hall. The temple of Divine Julius was later sandwiched between two triumphal arches. On the north side (that’s the left while facing the altar) Augustus erected the Actium Arch in 29 BCE further commemorating his victory over Mark Anthony and Cleopatra. On the south side of the temple Augustus erected the Parthian Arch, celebrating the return of surrendered Roman standards that had been lost to the Parthians some 24 years earlier under Caesar’s reign.
	20 Sep 2020	17: The Temple of Castor and Pollux	00:06:13
The Temple of Castor and Pollux is readily recognizable by its remaining 3 white columns standing in a line close by the Temple of Vesta. These columns are part of the side of a much later rebuild of what was originally a 5 Century BCE temple. The original temple to the semi-divine twins Castor and Pollux was pledged just after 500 BCE by Aulus Postumius Tubertus - an early Roman military leader. According to legend, Jupiter’s mortal son Castor and his immortal son Pollux came riding into battle in aid of Rome’s forces – the twins were seen by Postumius and his immediate troops. The semi-gods were carrying spears, riding white horses and helped guide an attack of the Roman troops. They were then seen again, later that same day, at the spring of Joturna where they spread news of Rome’s victory. The Temple and Spring of Joturna are very close by. In the early second century BCE the temple was repaired by possibly Aemilius Paullus in celebration of his victory over the Macedonians. Further modifications and updates were made by Lucius Caecilius Metellus and then by the Emperor Augustus following the devastating fire of 14 or 9 BCE. He used the repairs to better associate the temple and the divine twins with his own two sons - Gaius and Lucius Caesar. Sadly, both children would die before completion of the project and so, in time, the association changed to be with Tiberius and his late brother Drusus. In the course of all these repairs and updates the design was changed to be of a form similar to other adjacent forum temples such as that of Divus Julius. The updated version had two sets of steps flanking the entrance, a row of 8 columns at the front and back and 11 columns on each side. The 3 remaining columns, which have Corinthian capitals, are from the middle section of the east side. They support a simple but elegant entablature that would have run around the entirety of the edge of the roof – most likely with a carved dedication on the front that faced North. Ascending the steps at the front one would have passed through the front columns, under a large triangular pediment and into a single main temple hall that likely contained statues of Castor and Pollux. Given that the temple has a raised podium fronting directly onto the Forum it also served as an orators platform. Perhaps surprisingly, the extremely solid base of the temple’s foundations was divided into chambers for various official public services - particularly those needing the protection of thick walls. In addition to its civic function, the Temple was the center of annual celebrations commemorating the victory at Lake Regillus. A major cavalry parade was held each year on July 15th and featured as many as 5,000 young men carrying shields and spears.
	20 Sep 2020	18: The Basilica Paulli	00:06:02
Before the Basilica Paulli was built, this location had already served as the site of a basilica commissioned in 179 BCE by consul Marcus Fulvius Nobilior. That building replaced a series of butchers shops that previously occupied the site. Fulvius didn’t see the project through to completion so, after his death, his colleague and contemporary Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ensured the work was finished. For the next 125 years the building sited here was known as the Basilica Fulvia after its original sponsor. This first version had a large and roughly rectangular main hall with 34 internal columns defining the inner apse – these were arranged in 4 columns at each end and an additional 13 on each side. Coins from the period show that it was two stories high with columns on the upper floor on the outside. The side of the Basilica that faced the Forum had a portico running along its length also supported by a set of columns. Under the portico were a set of alcoves that housed a row of new shops – these were referred to as the Tabernae Argentariae Novae which indicates that the shops were actually silversmiths, money changers and bankers. A substantial refinement and upgrade of the Basilica was made by the Consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus in 55BCE using money he’d received as a bribe from Julius Caesar – the money had been given in return for political support while Caesar was vying for power with Pompey.
	20 Sep 2020	19: Black Stone, Rostra and Phocas	00:08:48
You’re listening to an Audio Guide to Ancient Rome. This episode is one in a series of short descriptions of monuments in the Roman Forum. In this episode I’m describing the Black Stone, Rostra and the Column of Phocas. The Roman Forum sits in a saddle between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills. Originally a marshy area, successive improvements to the land’s drainage allowed this to eventually become the center of power for the city. As its armies conquered new territories and money flowed into Rome, the Forum’s original meat and produce sellers were pushed out, to be replaced by majestic temples and monumental structures that accommodated the key societal, political and judicial systems needed for the empire to function. This area served as a central market and meeting place over many centuries although the nature of the proprietors and clientele changed significantly over time. The Forum and its surrounding buildings grew to be the focal point for nearly everything associated with the lives of the people of Rome including political discussions, legislative processes, civic entertainment, as well as a logical place to hold a riot or even a cremation. The area was first surfaced with gravel in 7th Century BCE around the time of the establishment of the Comitium and Senate House (or Curia). Although lost for many centuries and no longer recognizable other than through its archaeological footprint, the Comitium was sited in front of where you now see the meeting house of the Roman Senate (which is often called the Curia Julia). If you’re having trouble locating this, it is to the south east of the Arch of Septimius Severus and hidden underneath a low sloping temporary roof that covers ongoing excavation work. Also the location of the sanctuary for the fire god Vulcan, this was an important cult center from the very beginning of Rome’s development. The sanctuary consisted of an open-air U-shaped altar, a column which was probably for a cult statue, and an inscribed stela, known as the Lapis Niger (or Black Stone).
	20 Sep 2020	20: The Curia Julia	00:05:42
The Curia Julia is the third building in the Forum that was purpose built as the Senate’s meeting place and each bore the name of its financial sponsor. The custom of meeting in a Curia was believed to have begun in a temple where the warring tribes gathered and laid down their arms during the reign of Romulus. During the early monarchy, the temple was used by senators acting as council to the king. Tullus Hostilius was believed to have replaced the original structure after fire destroyed the converted temple – hence the first purpose built version is known as Curia Hostilia. This curia was enlarged in 80 BCE by Lucius Cornelius Sulla during his renovations of the comitium at which time it was renamed the Curia Cornelia. That building was lost in 53 BCE when the supporters of the murdered Publius Clodius Pulcher used it as the location of a funeral pyre to cremate his body and accidentally burned the whole place down. Subsequently, Julius Caesar’s major rebuild in 44BCE meant that the Senate sessions were temporarily convened in Pompey’s Theater located next to what is now the Campo dei Fiori. This is why the Theater became the venue of Caesar’s assassination as Caesar made his way there to a meeting of the senate. Caesar’s death delayed the new Curia’s construction which was eventually completed in 29 BCE by Augustus Caesar. This version, the Curia Julia, was remodeled by Domitian between the years 81 and 96. Then, in the year 283, it was heavily damaged by a fire. From 284 to 305, the Curia was rebuilt by Diocletian and it is the remnants of this building that we see today although it still carries the name Curia Julia.
	20 Sep 2020	21: The Arch of Septimius Severus	00:09:03
The Arch commemorates the victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his sons, Caracalla and Geta, in the two campaigns waged against the Parthians between the years 194 and 199. Before this the Romans had been in conflict with Parthia for hundreds of years with notable campaigns taking place under the command of various of its leaders including Crassus, Trajan and Hadrian spanning from 52BCE through to the early third century. In the first of these, Crassus led an invading army into Mesopotamia, with catastrophic results; at the Battle of Carrhae, Crassus and his son were defeated and killed by the Parthian army under General Surena. The bulk of Crassus’ force was either killed or captured; of 42,000 men, about half died, a quarter made it back to their base in Syria, and the remainder became prisoners of war. Rome was humiliated by this major defeat, which was made even worse by the fact that the Parthians had captured several Legionary Eagle standards. Such history made Severus’ campaigns and the eventual defeat of Parthia particularly important to Rome and worthy of memorialization. The arch has four carved panels that describe, in chronological sequence, the major events in the course of Severus’ campaigns. Unfortunately some of these are in a poor state of preservation and many scenes are barely discernible. The side that faces the forum is particularly damaged because it has always been exposed to the wind and a fire in the Middle Ages. If, as we work our way around the monument, you’re having trouble making out the panel details, bear in mind that clearer modern versions of these reliefs can be seen in the Museo Nazionale della Civiltà Romana.
	20 Sep 2020	22: The Temple of Concord	00:05:24
The Temple of Concord is the site of a series of shrines dedicated to the Roman goddess Concordia, and erected at the western end of the Roman Forum. The earliest temple is believed to have been vowed by Marcus Furius Camillus in 367 BCE, but it may not have been built until 218 BCE. The temple which had been occasionally repaired was completey rebuilt by Emperor Tiberius and dedicated in the year 10 after the original had been burnt down following a lightning strike. Tiberius paid for the construction with the spoils of his and his brother Drusus’ highly successful campaigns conquering and pillaging across vast areas of Germania. The early version of the temple was similar to the nearby Temple of Castor and Pollux with steps leading up through lines of columns supporting a pediment that led to the entrance doors and a long and narrow main cella. However Tiberius’ version was quite different as the temple expanded sideways with the main cella being wide rather than long – in part this was necessary because of the space limitations at the foot of the Capitoline hill and the fact that is was sited at the foot of the Tabularium. Its sideways expansion meant it ate into the space that had been occupied by the Basilica Opimia (sited to the left of the original building when looking from the path that runs in front of the Arch of Septimius Severus).
	20 Sep 2020	23: The Temple of Saturn	00:05:10
The Temple, repaired and rebuilt over many centuries, is one of the most ancient buildings in the Forum. Its construction was ordered by the last Etruscan King, Tarquin the Proud, in the late 6th or early 5th century BCE and was to be sited in front of an altar already dedicated to Saturn. It is easily recognized by its 8 remaining Ionic columns – six along the front and one on each side forming the front portico. These support an entablature with an inscription that can be translated as “The Senate and People of Rome Restored what was consumed by fire”. This evidences restoration work from the late fourth century. Over 500 years before this, in the early to mid-first century BCE, Lucius Munatius Plancus used his spoils of war to reconstruct the temple. Munatius had been one of the generals successfully campaigning in Gaul alongside Julius Caesar and returned to Rome a wealthy man. However, following Caeser’s assassination he repeatedly switched allegiances to try to remain in favor with however seemed to have the upper hand in the pursuit of overall control of the empire. The design of the Temple of Saturn however did not significantly change over the centuries despite being repeatedly repaired. The portico originally had 6 columns at the front and two additional full columns on each side. There was a single main set of steps at the front that lead up to a pair of entrance doors.
	20 Sep 2020	24: The Temple of Vespasian and Titus	00:05:31
The Temple of Vespasian and Titus sits at the north-west end of the Forum between the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Concord and backs onto the Tabularium. It is readily identified by the three Corinthian columns connected by a carved piece of entablature that together form a right-angle. These columns establish the front-right corner of the Temple. Originally there would have been a total of 6 columns along the front and 8 running along each side. There were originally two sets of stairs leading up through the front columns into a portico underneath a large triangular pediment. This arrangement of steps was unusual and likely a result of the limited space available in this part of the forum. The pediment seems to have had an inscription across the front with a dedication that read ‘Divo Vespasiano Augusto SPQR’. The temple was constructed to honor the Flavian Dynasty, which comprised the emperors: Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian.
	20 Sep 2020	25: The Basilica Julia	00:04:33
The Basilica Julia was dedicated by Julius Caesar in 46 BCE – the same year that his nearby Forum was completed. Caesar funded the construction with monies taken during his highly successful campaigns in Gaul. But his was not the first Basilica on this site. Over one hundred years earlier Tiberius Sempronius Graccus had bought a house from his father-in-law as well as adjacent butchers shops, tore them down and built in their place the Basilica Sempronia. This original building was smaller, covering roughly two-thirds of the site and positioned at the south east end (towards to the temple of Castor and Pollux). Competing with his rival Pompey’s major Theater construction in the Fields of Mars, Caesar repaired and extended the Basilica Sempronia at the same time that he was building out the nearby Forum to the north that also bears his name. In 7 BCE, fire ravaged the buildings around the forum with the Basilica Julia and the Temple of Castor and Pollux being particularly badly damaged. The temple was rebuilt first and rededicated in the year 6, however it took a total of 19 years for the Basilica to be repaired. When completed, emperor Augustus dedicated the building his deceased grandchildren Gaius and Lucius however this new name didn’t find common use. The Basilica consisted of a central nave and four aisles divided by square pilasters of travertine. These were all once veneered with marble. The fronts and sides of the building were solid marble with Doric half columns projecting out of square pilasters.
	20 Sep 2020	26: The Forum of Julius Caesar	00:08:14
This area, at the side of the Capitoline Hill, was the border between two of the ancient tribes and a site for burials roughly 3,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence shows that at times there were also huts, a forge and in the 6th Century BCE, it was the site of a large house – potentially that of a king. The major redevelopment of this site happened after Julius Caesar prevailed in his civil war with Pompey and reclaimed his position as Consul. He then began a major overhaul of the Roman Forum replacing some of its older buildings and enlarging it into this area behind the Curia. Acquiring the buildings, land and levelling the whole site would have been an extremely expensive undertaking but Caesar had amassed a huge fortune from the spoils of his campaigns across Europe and, in particular, in Gaul. Excavations have revealed that the space provided a vast open colonnaded court that focused attention on the Temple of Genetrix that stood on the north western short side of the square. The temple had been promised by Caesar the evening before the battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE as his forces prepared to engage directly with Pompey’s troops. Caesar’s promise was made in a late attempt to win favor with Pompey’s preferred deity, Venus Victrix. Although significantly outnumbered, Caesar won the battle but failed to capture Pompey who fled to Egypt only to be subsequently executed by the young Pharaoh Ptolemy. In the end Caesar didn’t keep his word and instead dedicated the building to the Julian family’s preferred deity Venus Genetrix. Never one to miss an opportunity for self promotion, in the center of this courtyard was a military equestrian statue of Caesar in the style of Alexander the Great riding Bucephalus. It was likely twice normal size. This new Forum was dedicated to Caesar in September 46 BCE to celebrate his combined victories over Gaul, Egypt, northern Africa and The Kingdom of Pontus (which is part of what we now know as Turkey).
	20 Sep 2020	27: The Circus Maximus	00:15:42
Legend has it that the Circus Maximus was founded by the early kings of Rome in the 6th Century BCE. It is undoubtedly the oldest and was by far the largest public sports venue of ancient Rome. It occupies most of the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and served Rome’s chariot-racing stadium for over 1,000 years. That said, use of the Circus was not limited to chariot racing, it also served as a venue for public games or Ludi connected to Roman religious festivals. Ludi were typically sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people and gods. The earliest triumphal ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud for his victory over Pometia and dedicated to Jupiter, the god of the sky, Ludi ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies, gladiatorial combat, public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics, plays and recitals and wild animal hunts. Some included public executions. The race track is roughly 550m long and 80m wide. The spectator stands are 30m deep and surround almost the entire perimeter giving, in the first century, a maximum capacity was reported to be roughly 250,000 spectators although this may include people sitting on the sides of the adjacent hills – in any case this is over four times more people than the maximum capacity of the Colosseum.
	25 Feb 2021	28: Trajan's Column	00:08:52
Trajan’s Column is a monument to Emperor Trajan’s victory in the wars with Dacia that took place between the years 101 and 106. It was part of a sequence of constructions built by or dedicated to Trajan. Over time, running from north-west to south-east, these included the Temple of Trajan, the Column itself that was flanked by two libraries, the Basilica Ulpia and the large expanse of Trajan’s main forum square. This description assumes that you are standing in the middle of the curve viewing perimeter looking towards the Column. Positioned there, the Temple of Trajan would have been behind you as its remains lie underneath the Palazzo Valentini. The libraries flanked immediately to the left and right sides of the Column. Sections of the parallel inner columns that define Basilica Ulpia’s main hall can be seen beyond Trajan’s Column. Trajan’s main forum square would have been hidden from view behind the Basilica as would his market, which is over of the far left. In as much as this is possible, the carvings on the column appear to have been intended to be viewed from this north-west vantage point with key scenes in the narrative always shown on this side. It is most notable today because of the exquisitely detailed relief work carved into the column, these give a clear narrative of Trajan's two victorious military campaigns.
	20 Sep 2020	29: Largo Argentina	00:11:21
Largo Argentina is an exposed cluster of four temples to the south of the Pantheon and east of the Campo De’ Fiori. Today these sit in the middle of a large square and next to a bustling set of road intersections but they were originally part of a much larger temple complex in the field of Mars. Hundreds of years after the first of the four was constructed they were joined on their west by Pompey’s grand Theater. It is not known for certain which gods should be associated with each temple so traditionally they are referred to simply by the letters A to D. They run alphabetically with rectangular Temple A on the north side closest to the wide road intersection, circular Temple B is next, continuing along we have the two other rectangular temples C and then D. Excavations and soundings indicated that versions of the 3 rectangular Temples were in place as far back as 150 BCE. Each of these was oriented east-west with the entrance steps facing East. Before Temple B was built it appears that there was an earlier and simpler open-roofed religious space likely with a modest altar in the middle – this was thought to be associated with the ancient cult of Juno Caprotina. In the first century BCE all four temples were in position together with a set of sacrificial altars immediately in front of their entrance steps. Although there is not 100% certainty, the following gods have been linked to each Temple. Temple A has been associated with Juturna the goddess of fountains, wells and springs. Scholars have more confidence in the association of Temple B with the Roman goddess Fortuna given that parts of a colossal statue were found close by. Temple C is the most ancient of this set of four, dating back to the 4th or 3rd century BCE. It is generally understood to be dedicated to Feronia, an ancient goddess representing wildlife, fertility, health, and abundance. There are various competing theories for the designation of Temple D’s god however it has been well argued that it should be associated with Lares Permarini, the ancient protectors of navigation.
	20 Sep 2020	30: The Palatine HIll	00:35:02
As part of this description I will provide some directions and guidance to specific locations to help you explore the site however it is difficult to provide an exact route as the access paths change depending on what archeological excavation or restoration work is taking place. This tour starts at the entry gate on Via di San Gregorio. Once inside the Palatine park, make your way up the hill until you are standing in a wide graveled area overlooking the sunken garden (also known as the Hippodrome). As you walk I will give you some of the general history of the site. Note that visiting the House of Livia and the House of Augustus requires arranging tickets in advance as only limited small group access is allowed and for both of these you will have a dedicated tour guide. For more details go to Coopculture.it The Palatine Hill is said to be the site of the first settlements in Rome and archeological evidence shows indeed that human habitation here extends back to the 10th century BCE. Visible today are therefore the remains of multiple phases of building, rebuilding, stone robbing and overlaying of structures across three thousand years of people living on this hill. Although names have been given to some structures often there is no reliable evidence that links a person to a specific house however you will see that some structures are labelled with Roman names, these are largely a matter of convention rather than evidence that a particular person lived there. The rich and wealthy had long sought to live here overlooking the Roman Forum but it was Emperor Augustus who established the trend of Rome’s emperors making it their imperial residence from around the year 40 BCE. Redevelopment of the hillside over the following centuries means that there is still some debate over the exact identification of buildings from Augustus’ time, some do remain but most of the major large-scale structures we see today were commissioned by Emperor Domitian in the first century or later revised or repaired by the Severan emperors of the third century. Domitian’s extensive palace, which is the first area we will explore, was designed by Rabirius, the construction and remodeling took roughly 10 years and was completed around the year 90. This episode describes: - Domitian's Palace - The Temple of Apollo - The House of Livia - The House of Augustus - The House of Romulus - The Temple of Victory - The Temple of the Great Mother As well as other general history of the Palatine Hill.
	20 Sep 2020	9: The Roman Forum	00:03:21
You’re listening to an Audio Guide to Ancient Rome. My name is Daron Green. This intro and the next 15 podcast episodes are all relatively short – typically 5-10 minutes long with each focused on a specific building or area in the Roman Forum – note that there is an interactive google map available on rome-podcast.com to help navigate you around these episodes and the other locations I cover outside of the Forum. You don’t have to visit these in numerical order indeed, part of the rationale for recording these separately was to let you choose the best route depending on how busy different areas are and what interests you the most. For me, visiting the Roman Forum is really quite special as I, when I’m there, I always feel genuinely connected to Rome’s deep history. From what was originally swampy marshland, the Romans drained the area and turned it into the control center of political and social activity for the most powerful society and military force in the world. The forum was the marketplace of Rome, and later a gathering space for triumphal processions, criminal trials and gladiatorial matches. It has also seen executions, riots, assassinations, funerals, and both inspirational speeches that changed the course of history and botched cremations (one of which got so ridiculously out of hand that it burnt down the Senate building). The Roman Forum was home to some of the oldest and most important buildings in the ancient city including shrines, temples, markets, a prison for captured enemies of the state, civic meeting areas, victory monuments and the official buildings that drove the administration and governance of first the republic and then the empire. The Forum was largely abandoned in the Middle Ages, and over time, buried under layers of earth, some temples were transformed into Christian churches which helped significantly with their preservation while less fortunate neighboring structures were pillaged for raw materials. Indeed, during the Renaissance the Forum became an all-too-convenient ready source of marble and stone which meant that many of the buildings were dismantled and much of the fine details and craftsmanship of the ancient Roman builders was lost. As you will learn, the buildings in the forum often make statements about the people that commissioned them and the favor they wished to gain with the people of Rome, the Senate or with the gods. Some of the structures were financed by the spoils of war, others through extortion or simply from the riches of a successful family business. To give some perspective on the deep history, when the Forum was majorly remodeled following a major fire in the year 283 it was already 1,000 years old.
	20 Sep 2020	31: The Mausoleum of Hadrian	00:08:48
If you’re looking on a map for Hadrian’s Mausoleum then you may well not locate it as its name, purpose, shape and context has changed radically over the past 1900 years. Today it is more commonly known as the Castel Sant’Angelo however the core of this building was originally constructed as a mausoleum for the Roman Emperor Hadrian and his family. The building was later used by popes as a fortress and castle, and is now a museum with pleasant cafés and impressive panoramic views of Rome that take in the Tiber river and the Vatican. It was common for mausoleums to be home for the ashes of many family members and Hadrian needed to build his own in part because the nearby mausoleum of Augustus was already full. In a show of feigned modesty, Hadrian was careful to commission a building that did not exceed the diameter of Augustus’ however it was quite significantly taller. Looking today at the Castle Sant’Angelo we see a structure dominated by defensive walls, corner tower fortifications and religious statues that were all built and repeatedly updated over the past 600 years. That said, there are echoes of the original mausoleum design in what we see. This episode explains the history and original design of Hadrian's Mausoleum.
	19 Sep 2020	1: Introduction	00:09:36
Each episode in this series gives you the history and a short tour of a site in the eternal city in the hope that you can make the most of your visit. I was motivated to create this series after many great trips to Rome. That said, each time I visited I realized I spent half of my time with my head buried in various guide books reading out the history to others. Fun though this was, I also wanted to be able to just look at the sights and have someone else narrate the context. I would often later find out that the guide books weren't particularly detailed or necessarily accurate. So, I found myself repeatedly asking: 'why doesn’t someone just record a good description of the main sites giving details of each location, some key history of the building, how it came to be there, who built it and why?'. After the 3rd time of complaining about this I realized that, rather than waiting for someone else, I could just do it myself. In doing this I have been inspired by the work of numerous other visitors to Rome and to many of the people that have actively researched, excavated, mapped, drawn and documented their findings. Specifically in my case the Rome Walking Tour Written by Walter Muzzey collated and edited by Jeff Bondono was an extremely useful source and inspiration. Note that this narrative is available online and as a free download on Amazon kindle. Jeff has also painstakingly photographed pretty much every Roman site in the city and I do recommend checking out jeffbondono.com. In terms of recommendations for books about Rome here are sources I’ve found useful: For kids there’s: Gladiators “Fighting to the death in Ancient Rome” written by M. C. Bishop. This is handy if you’re visiting the Colosseum, Ludus Magnus or Circus Maximus. I think its aimed at mid-teens but can easily be read to younger children. Its packed full of interesting facts about life as a gladiator and corrects a lot of the misunderstandings created in many of our modern movies. Another good kid-friendly book is the History of Rome in 12 Buildings by Phillip Barlag. This provides a journey both through time and space by visiting a dozen different sites that, taken together, span the entire history of the Roman empire. His short book is very easy reading and weaves an appreciation for the buildings together with a great sense of the people that built them. Now, if you’re interested reading much more in-depth information on ancient Rome then I highly recommend Amanda Claridge’s books. Specifically: Rome, an Oxford Archaeological Guide – this is a truly great resource, if you want detail and are looking to only carry one book with you, you couldn’t choose anything better. Note, it doesn’t have the glossy color pictures of other guide books but does have archaeologically accurate descriptions, great guidance for visiting and is exceptionally well researched by someone that is an expert in Roman archaeology. Claridge also co-edited a summary of the current state of scholarly understanding of Ancient Rome. This is A Companion to the City of Rome. It is more of text-book and, weighing in at nearly 3lbs isn’t really something you’re going to want to carry around with you – but it does give a single source from which to find references to the seminal works covering pretty much all aspects of ancient Rome’s history, landscape, buildings, religion, its economy, society and its various governance structures. In researching this podcast I have found the Atlas of Ancient Rome, edited by Andrea Carandini, to be a most incredibly valuable, detailed and thorough aggregation of the latest research. This two-volume publication is the most comprehensive summary of the ancient sites of all of Rome but is likely only of interest to an extreme enthusiast or historian. If you're looking for something at the other end of the spectrum then the National Geographic Traveler series is worthy of consideration. This has an easy-to-read but also very shallow guide to Rome. It does have good color pictures and maps so, if you just want something that helps you get around then it’s a handy and a very accessible read but don’t expect to learn too much about any given location. Also, if you haven’t already found them, there are two other podcasts that you might find interesting: The first is an extremely comprehensive series called “The History of Rome” recorded by Mike Duncan – this was a weekly podcast that ran from 2007 to 2012 and traced the history of the entirety of the Roman Empire, beginning with Aeneas's arrival in Italy and ending with the exile of Romulus Augustulus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The second podcast is “When in Rome” – this is an ongoing kickstarter-funded project by Matt Smith. Try not to be put-off by the intro music, sorry Matt, but the episodes, conducted as a series of interviews, explore a lot of the same locations that I cover but provide more of a general history than a detailed guide for someone that is actively visiting the site. That said, I’ve really enjoyed listening to these and learning about more of the context for the buildings around the city of Rome and beyond. As should be clear from the Episode titles, I’ve generally created one episode per site however I broke the Roman Forum into individual short-form episodes so that you can quickly navigate your way around without having to following a specific route. So, to be clear, you don’t need to listen to or visit the sites in the numerical order of the episodes. To avoid data roaming charges, if you’re planning on listening on your cell phone then I recommend downloading all the episodes while on WiFi. Most of the locations don’t have an open public network that you can access so you’ll need to do this in advance. In terms of general tips for visiting Rome, there are many well researched online videos and good advice in most guide books. My recommends are simply: Get up and out early to avoid the crowds – and it can get really crowded at the major locations to the point that you might have to queue for an hour or more to get in if you’re late to arrive; Go and see one or two sites then take an early lunch to make it easy to find somewhere to eat and then go back out sightseeing when everyone else, that got up late, is struggling to find a restaurant with the menu or at the price point they want. There are various different passes that let you visit multiple locations and are valid for multiple days. The specific offers vary by season so I would recommend checking online for the best options for your visit. This will save you money. Check whether you need to have additional tickets to see specific areas in the places you are visiting as sometimes only small group access is allowed to certain exhibits or buildings. Unfortunately you’re going to have to keep an eye out for pickpockets, keep your valuables in sight at all times – this includes when you are in churches and even when you’ve paid for entry. To minimize the risk, travel light and leave your valuables at home. Wear sunglasses, put on sun screen and carry some drinking water – it can get very bright and hot if you’re visiting any time from May to September – particularly if you’re in an open area surrounded by reflective white marble. If you keep an eye out its relatively easy to find places to replenish your own water bottle from fonts around the city – for example there are public fonts with perfectly good drinking water the Roman forum and on the Palatine hill. If you pay for a guide make sure you get an early entrance slot – yes, the guide groups do often allow you to skip the line but there are a lot of people trying to do this just like you and it can be frustrating to be waiting in line with a guide that is on a fixed schedule. I genuinely hope this podcast series is useful. Feel free to provide feedback via your podcasting app or on rome-podcast.com. Thanks for listening and now please go and enjoy Rome.
	26 Sep 2020	32: The Pyramid of Cestius	00:07:51
The Pyramid of Cestius was built during the reign of the emperor Augustus, probably between 18 and 12 BCE. It’s surface is white Carrara marble and the tip is exactly 100 Roman feet (30 meters) high. At the time of its construction, Ancient Rome was heavily influenced by Egyptian architecture after the conquest of Egypt by Augustus in 30BCE. Obelisks and other monuments where being imported from this new province to decorate Rome’s buildings, piazzas and its major sporting venues. Despite this fashion, only two pyramids are known to have been built in Rome and the only one left standing is the Pyramid of Cestius. Caius Cestius was a tribune, a plebian and member of the religious corporation of the Septemviri Epulonum. The epulones formed one of the four core religious organizations of ancient Roman priests. The Epulones were tasked with arranging feasts and public banquets at festivals and games, duties that had originally belonged to the pontiffs. In his will, Cestius asked his heirs to construct a tomb in the form of a pyramid and, if that wasn’t an odd challenge enough, he required that the project be completed within 330 days. On the east and west sides, about halfway up, is the inscription recording the names and titles of Cestius, and below, on the east side only, more text that tells the circumstances of the erection of the monument. Note that access to the interior of the pyramid is limited to just a couple of days each month and will require you booking tickets in advance that said, it is worth travelling to see this quite remarkable monument even if you don’t go inside.
	03 Oct 2020	33: The Theater of Marcellus	00:10:12
The Theater was named after Emperor Augustus’ nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus however the building was originally commissioned by Julius Caesar who bought and cleared the land in a space to the south of the Field of Mars amongst a cluster of Temples and next to the Tiber. Notably, neither Julius Caesar nor Marcellus were alive at the time of the Theater’s opening – Caesar had been assassinated and Marcellus had passed away from an illness and the task of completing the project had fallen on Augustus. The naming and official opening took place 10 years after Marcellus’s death in the same year that Augustus dedicated the Ara Pacis. Marcellus was the eldest son of Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, a former Roman consul, and of Octavia Minor, sister of Caesar Augustus. Marcellus, the Emperor’s nephew, married Augustus’ daughter Julia in 25 BCE thereby becoming also his son-in-law. He served under Augustus in Hispania alongside the future emperor Tiberius and was elected to a magistrate's office at a very young age, an honor Marcellus celebrated by sponsoring extraordinary public games. His rapid rise to public office and close ties to the Emperor are said to have brought him into conflict with Agrippa and others. This promising career was cut short when Marcellus died in 23 BCE at the age of 19. At that time an illness was spreading throughout Rome and first Augustus and then Marcellus would succumb. The emperor recovered but the illness proved fatal for Marcellus who passed away in Baiae. The architecture of the theatre had a significant influence on subsequent buildings in Rome and across the empire for example the design of the façade was reproduced in iconic buildings such as the nearby Colosseum and the Amphitheater in Verona. In particular, the theater structure had a curving double colonnade decorated on the outside with three orders or styles of columns, two of these are well preserved in the lower levels. Although now missing, the keystones of the external archways of the colonnade were decorated with ornately carved masks consistent with the tradition of Greek drama that were used by actors to show expressions of smiling or frowning. The theatre was 111 m in diameter and was the largest and arguably the most important in Ancient Rome. It is thought to have been able to accommodate more than 20,000 spectators. For its opening, Augustus commissioned special games and festivities. As part of this he had a golden statue of his nephew wearing a golden crown brought into the Theater and seated on a traditional Roman curule chair in amongst the dignitaries that had arranged the celebrations. The Theater’s proximity to the river meant that the route of the city’s triumphal procession needed to be adjusted. Instead of going around the building it would be redirected to take advantage of the new facilities and passed in front of the stage and in full view of the theater’s audience. It is likely that Caesar’s original design had to be adjusted to accommodate this requirement – something that was achieved by widening the gap between the stage front and the seating. By the early 1900s, like many of the ancient Roman buildings, the theater had become crowded with piles of old ruins, shops, shacks and slum housing. Archaeologists had undertaken some exploratory digs at the beginning of the century but, given all of the overlaid structures, it was difficult to ascertain what remained of the original theater. Mussolini ordered the area completely cleared to allow the building to be renovated and restored to a recognizable state. Clearing the site and widening adjacent roads displaced most of the occupants of the Theater to other parts of the city. By the end of the excavations in 1932, over three quarters of the façade had been revealed, the barrel-vault had been cleared, and iron gates installed. Today the building is used as a combination of private apartments and offices however there is good access to view the remains of the outer colonnades. Photo attribution: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theatre_of_Marcellus_(NO).jpg
	10 Oct 2020	34: The Mausoleum of Augustus	00:10:08
Augustus started building the mausoleum following his victory over Anthony and Cleopatra in 31 BCE at the naval battle on the west coast of Greece close to the promontory of Actium – his success brought an end to the civil war and meant that Egypt transitioned to be a Roman province. Augustus’ cremated ashes wouldn’t be placed inside for another 45 years however he would see it serve as the tomb for several imperial family members and close friends during his lifetime. Today this imperial burial site is surrounded by a combination of somewhat brutal architecture from the 1930s, a church hospital and a modern museum dedicated to Augustus’ transplanted and reconstructed Ara Pacis. However, when first completed the Mausoleum would have dominated the landscape as it was tall, strategically positioned in a large open area and visible from a long distance, it was also placed close by the Via Flaminia and the Tiber – both major access routes for Rome. Considering the historical significance of the building, the Mausoleum has suffered (and continues to receive) a surprising level of neglect. At the time of this recording in October 2020 there is still no visitor access despite millions of dollars and multi-year efforts to renovate and re-open the site. That said, given the adjacency of Ara Pacis museum, if you’re already there, it is worth taking a few minutes to look across to the final resting place of the first and perhaps greatest Roman Emperor. What remains is principally the central core and foundation structure of a huge circular tomb. The design of the upper tiers is the subject of speculation as there are no remaining original external walls and no contemporary evidence in coins, sketches or sufficiently detailed descriptions to allow a confident reconstruction. That said, we do have one account by Strabo a Greek geographer and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. Writing about the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) shortly after Augustus’ death he says: For this reason, in the belief that this place was holiest of all, the Romans have erected in it the tombs of their most illustrious men and women. The most noteworthy is what is called the Mausoleum, a great mound near the river on a lofty foundation of white marble, thickly covered with ever-green trees to the very summit. Now on top is a bronze image of Augustus Caesar; beneath the mound are the tombs of himself and his kinsmen and intimates; behind the mound is a large sacred precinct with wonderful promenades; and in the center of the Campus is the wall (this too of white marble) round his crematorium; the wall is surrounded by a circular iron fence and the space within the wall is planted with black poplars. The circular mausoleum had a diameter of 300 feet (roughly 89meters) with its entrance to the south – which faces towards the rear of the Chiesa di San Rocco all’Augusteo. The entrance way led into a roughly 40m wide series of concentric walls that themselves formed three circular corridors. Each of these corridors had a barrel vault and they surrounded a spiral staircase in the middle of the mausoleum that wound its way up 30meters to the sepulcher where we imagine the ashes of the deceased were placed. Directly above this area was the pinnacle structure that supported the large statue of Augustus mentioned by Strabo. In front of the entrance were two bronze plaques attached to pilasters on either side of the main doors. These contained the text of the Res Gestae a personal account of Augustus’ accomplishments. If you are visiting the site then consider going to the outside wall of the Ara Pacis museum to the side that faces the Mausoleum. There you will find a complete copy of this latin text which goes into detail of Augustus’ political career; the offices and political honors that he held. Sometime before the fourth century the entrance to the Mausoleum gained two plain obelisks of red Aswan granite. These are gone from the site and are now positioned in the Piazza del Quirinale and in front of Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. In the Middle Ages, the Mausoleum was converted into a fortress and later a site for formal gardens. In the Eighteenth Century, the area inside the upper terrace was used for bullfights, then for circus and theatrical performances, and in the Twentieth Century, before restoration began it was used as a venue for concerts. Plans to re-open the site remain unclear given the slow progress of the renovation – the latest target date of spring 2020 has clearly not been met. Image: "Rome. Mausoleum of Augustus." by Sergey Sosnovskiy is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0
	17 Oct 2020	35: The Column of Marcus Aurelius	00:11:09
This monument celebrates Marcus Aurelius’ two successful military campaigns against tribes north of the Danube in what is modern day Germany. The first campaign ran from the year 172-173 and was waged primarily against the Marcomanni tribe, the second in the following two years was principally against the Sarmatians. For over a decade, these and other German tribes had been orchestrating raids into the provincial territory of Gaul (what we know today as France) and in the area south of the Danube, even going so far as laying siege to Roman settlements and exacting significant defeats against major Roman forces. In an effort to decisively counter these incursions, in the year 172 under Marcus Aurelius’ command the roman forces crossed the Danube into Marcomannic territory. Although few details are known, his troops were successful in defeating the Marcomanni and their allies as can be inferred by the Emperor adopting the title "Germanicus".. Echoing the design of Trajan’s column, the central cylindrical shaft is 100 feet high (29.5m) and made of 17 cylindrical blocks. A further 14 blocks in the base, plinth and attic gave a total of 31 massive pieces of marble that originally supported a bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius positioned at the top. Like Trajan’s column, it has a central spiral staircase and is decorated with a spiral frieze that wraps around the column shaft, in this case circling the column twenty-one times and maintaining a very uniform height throughout. The narrative of the carvings start with Roman troops crossing the Danube and then, in contrast to Trajan’s Column that heavily focused on construction works and religious duties undertaken by his roman forces on campaign, this storyline extensively catalogues the brutality of the roman troops and cruelty shown towards the Germanic tribes. Also, this carving is significantly deeper, its details are less subtle and it portrays a much less ambiguous message which might be simply stated as “mess with Rome and you’ll pay the price”. Following closely the narrative format established on Trajan’s column, Marcus Aurelius’ two campaigns are recorded reading from the bottom to the top. They are delineated by the inclusion of Victory figures half-way up the column. Starting with the crossing of the Danube, the first campaign follows a fairly conventional storyline of troops marching, imperial speeches, sacrifices to the gods and then the sacking of enemy towns. That said, the inhumanity with which the barbarians are treated in this case can perhaps be understood when one considers that this was not a military force out to annex an area of land with the intent of putting a new governance structure in place. Instead it had been mobilized to enact retribution for previous attacks against the empire and therefore focused primarily on punishment. Rome’s success in Marcus Aurelius’ first campaign is depicted as being delivered, in the end, by a miraculous intervention from the gods. Corroborating this, we understand from historians of the time that a summer’s drought was alleviated in the end by heavy rains that saved the imperial forces. The carvings then close their story of this first campaign with a surrender and a peace arrangement with the enemies of the empire, acts of imperial clemency and various religious sacrifices. The storyline of the second campaign reads as being even more brutal than the first. The Germanic tribes had broken whatever peace pledges they had made and Marcus Aurelius once again found himself waging war to suppress the empire’s troublesome northern neighbors. This time there would be no hint of clemency or forgiveness from the imperial troops. The story told by the carvings evidences intense fighting, decapitations of prisoners, the unmerciful destruction of villages; slaves, animals and crops were taken in a way that left the land barren and the people with no means of surviving the coming winter – leaving no doubt this was a brutal campaign.

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